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Aminoglycoside antibiotics interfere with the initial steps of protein synthesis by changing the shape of the 30S portion of the 70S prokaryotic ribosome hair loss kids buy 0.5 mg dutasteride amex. They were among the first antibiotics to have significant activity against gram-negative bacteria. Probably the best-known aminoglycoside is streptomycin, which was discovered in 1944. Streptomycin is still used as an alternative drug in the treatment of tuberculosis, but rapid development of resistance and serious toxic effects have diminished its usefulness. Aminoglycosides can affect hearing by causing permanent damage to the auditory nerve, and damage to the kidneys has also been reported. Gentamicin (spelled with an "i" to reflect its source, the filamentous bacterium Micromonospora) is especially useful against Pseudomonas infections. The aminoglycoside tobramycin is administered in an aerosol to help control infections that occur in patients with cystic fibrosis. Tetracyclines Tetracyclines are a group of closely related broad-spectrum antibiotics produced by Streptomyces spp. They do not interfere with mammalian ribosomes, but can affect mitochondrial ribosomes. Tetracyclines not only are effective against gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria but also penetrate body tissues well and are especially valuable against the intracellular rickettsias and chlamydias. Some semisynthetic tetracyclines, such as doxycycline and minocycline, are available. She finds out that the cornea donor was a previously healthy 30-year-old victim of a motorcycle crash who was on ventilator support for 4 days before his death. Other tetracycline-type antibiotics share the four-cyclicring structure of tetracycline and closely resemble it. Tetracyclines are used to treat many urinary tract infections, mycoplasmal pneumonia, and chlamydial and rickettsial infections. They are also frequently used as alternative drugs for such diseases as syphilis and gonorrhea. Because of their broad spectrum, tetracyclines often suppress the normal intestinal microbiota, causing gastrointestinal upsets and often leading to superinfections, particularly by the fungus Candida albicans. They are not advised for children, who might experience a brownish discoloration of the teeth, or for pregnant women, in whom they might cause liver damage. Compared to erythromycin, they have a broader antimicrobial spectrum and penetrate tissues better. This is especially important in the treatment of conditions caused by intracellular bacteria such as Chlamydia, a frequent cause of sexually transmitted infection. A new generation of semisynthetic macrolides, the ketolides, is being developed to cope with increasing resistance to other macrolides. However, its toxicity to the liver limits its use to treat acute respiratory infections. Glycylcyclines the glycylcyclines are a newer class of antibiotics discovered in the 1990s. This is a broad-spectrum, bacteriostatic antibiotic that binds to the 30S ribosomal subunit, blocking protein synthesis. An important advantage is that it inhibits the effects of rapid efflux, an important mechanism for bacterial antibiotic resistance (see page 580). Among its disadvantages is that it must be administered by slow intravenous infusion. Macrolides Macrolides are a group of antibiotics named for the presence of a macrocyclic lactone ring. However, erythromycin is not able to penetrate the cell walls of most gram-negative bacilli. Its spectrum of activity is therefore similar to that of penicillin G, and it is a frequent alternative drug to penicillin. Because it can be administered orally, an orange-flavored preparation of erythromycin is a frequent substitute for penicillin in treating streptococcal and staphylococcal infections in children. Erythromycin is also the drug of choice for the treatment of legionellosis, mycoplasmal pneumonia, and several other infections. It has a rather narrow spectrum of activity and is mainly Streptogramins We mentioned previously that the appearance of vancomycinresistant pathogens constitutes a serious medical problem. Synercid is a combination of two cyclic peptides, dalfopristin and quinupristin, which are distantly related to the macrolides. They block protein synthesis by attaching to the 50S portion of the ribosome, as do other antibiotics such as chloramphenicol. Dalfopristin blocks an early step in protein synthesis, and quinupristin blocks a later step. The combination causes incomplete peptide chains to be released and is synergistic in its action (see page 583). Synercid is effective against a broad range of gram-positive bacteria that are resistant to other antibiotics. Oxazolidinones the oxazolidinones are another class of antibiotics developed in response to vancomycin resistance. However, they are unique in their target, binding to the 50S ribosomal subunit close to the point where it interfaces with the 30S subunit. Pleuromutilins Pleuromutilin derivatives and the oxazolidinones represent two of the classes of antibiotics developed since 2000 (also see the following discussion of lipopeptides).

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The next goal of researchers is the Human Proteome Project hair loss nutritional deficiency order generic dutasteride pills, which will map all the proteins expressed in human cells. Genomic information can be searched with computer programs to find specific sequences or to look for similar patterns in the genomes of different organisms. Microbial genes are now being searched to identify molecules that are the virulence factors of pathogens. Reverse genetics is an approach to discovering the function of a gene from a genetic sequence. Reverse genetics attempts to connect a given genetic sequence with specific effects on the organism. For example, if you mutate or block a gene (see the earlier discussions of gene editing on page 255 and gene silencing on page 256), you can then look for a characteristic the organism lost. Such screening procedures can be performed on prospective parents and also on fetal tissue. Genetic testing can help a physician prescribe the correct medication for a patient. Paper towels Salt solution Smaller 2 the fragments are separated according to size by gel electrophoresis. The solution passes through the gel and filter to the paper towels by capillary action. Sealable plastic bag 5 the filter is exposed to a labeled probe for a specific gene. The genomics of pathogens has become a mainstay of monitoring, preventing, and controlling infectious disease. The use of genomics to trace a disease outbreak is described in the Clinical Focus box on page 264. The new field of forensic microbiology developed because hospitals, food manufacturers, and individuals can be sued in courts of law and because microorganisms can be used as weapons. Nanotechnology research is growing, with researchers developing innovative ways of using bacteria to produce nanospheres for potential drug targeting and delivery. Department of Energy are using bacteria in nanoscale electrical circuits to make hydrogen gas. Swedish researchers are using Acetobacter xylinum to build cellulose nanofibers for artificial blood vessels. The isolates from apple juice are identical to the patterns of isolates from patients who drank the contaminated juice but different from those from patients whose infections were not juice related. The requirements to prove in a court of law the source of a microbe are stricter than for the medical community. For example, to prove intent to commit harm requires collecting evidence properly and establishing a chain of custody of that evidence. Microbial properties that are unimportant in public health may be important clues in forensic investigations. The genetic fingerprint of sexually transmitted pathogens, for instance, has been used as evidence in sexual abuse and rape cases. In the Clinic (page 242) offers another example of the use of bacterial genomics in a criminal investigation. These developments suggest that the human microbiome may become an important law enforcement tool. The American Academy of Microbiology recently proposed professional certification in forensic microbiology. The process of selecting for genetically desirable plants has always been time-consuming. Conventional plant cross-breeding is laborious and involves waiting for the planted seed to germinate and the resulting plant to mature in order to learn whether the plant has the desired traits. Plant breeding has been revolutionized by the use of plant cells grown in culture. These cells can then be induced to regenerate whole plants, from which seeds can be harvested. Q What might Nanotechnology Nanotechnology deals with the design and manufacture of extremely small electronic circuits and mechanical devices built at the molecular level of matter. Molecule-sized robots or computers can be used to detect contamination in food, diseases in plants, or biological weapons. However, the small machines require small (a nanometer is 10 -9 meters; 1000 nm fit in 1 mm) wires and components. Bacteria may provide the needed small metals without producing the toxic waste associated with chemical manufacture. These microbes can also be transferred to objects in the home or office or to other people we live with. But which microbes commonly live on the body also varies greatly throughout the population as a whole-meaning that the microbiome can become a unique identifier in certain situations. A research project called the Home Microbiome Project followed seven families and their pets over 6 weeks. When three of the families moved, it took less than a day for the new house to have the same microbial population as the old one. All this research suggests that microbiome composition may be the basis for a reliable forensic tool. Microbiome profiles could be used to track whether a person lived somewhere, used a particular cell phone, or walked over a surface.

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Representative classes of arthropods include the following: Arachnida (eight legs): spiders hair loss graves disease cheap dutasteride 0.5 mg without a prescription, mites, ticks Crustacea (four antennae): crabs, crayfish Insecta (six legs): bees, flies, lice Table 12. An exception to this is the louse, which spends its entire life on its host and cannot survive for long away from a host. Mosquitoes are the vector for several pathogens to humans, including Zika virus, malaria, and dengue virus. While doing so, a housefly can pick up a pathogen on its feet or body and transport the pathogen to our food. Large numbers of parasites can then be deposited on or in the host while the vector is feeding there. The spirochete that causes Lyme disease is transmitted by ticks in this manner (see Chapter 23, page 664), and the West Nile virus is transmitted in the same way by mosquitoes (see Chapter 22, page 637). As discussed earlier, Plasmodium is an example of a parasite that requires that its vector also be the definitive host. To eliminate vectorborne diseases, health workers focus on eradicating the vectors. The Ascomycota have septate hyphae and produce ascospores and frequently conidiospores. Basidiomycota have septate hyphae and produce basidiospores; some produce conidiospores. Teleomorphic fungi produce sexual and asexual spores; anamorphic fungi produce asexual spores only. A fungal thallus consists of filaments of cells called hyphae; a mass of hyphae is called a mycelium. To reproduce, fission yeasts divide symmetrically, whereas budding yeasts divide asymmetrically. Sexual spores are usually produced in response to special circumstances, often changes in the environment. Systemic mycoses are fungal infections deep within the body that affect many tissues and organs. Cutaneous mycoses affect keratin-containing tissues such as hair, nails, and skin. Some protozoa can produce a cyst that provides protection during adverse environmental conditions. Mold spoilage of fruits, grains, and vegetables is more common than bacterial spoilage of these products. Euglenozoa move by means of flagella and lack sexual reproduction; they include Trypanosoma. Apicomplexa have apical organelles for penetrating host tissue; they include Plasmodium and Cryptosporidium. Ciliates move by means of cilia; Balantidium coli is the only human parasitic ciliate. A lichen is a mutualistic combination of an alga (or a cyanobacterium) and a fungus. The alga photosynthesizes, providing carbohydrates for the lichen; the fungus provides a holdfast. Lichens colonize habitats that are unsuitable for either the alga or the fungus alone. Lichens may be classified on the basis of morphology as crustose, foliose, or fruticose. Plasmodial slime molds consist of a multinucleated mass of protoplasm that engulfs organic debris and bacteria as it moves. The thallus of multicellular algae usually consists of a stipe, a holdfast, and blades. Diatoms are unicellular and have pectin and silica cell walls; some produce a neurotoxin. Dinoflagellates produce neurotoxins that cause paralytic shellfish poisoning and ciguatera. Flatworms are dorsoventrally flattened animals; parasitic flatworms may lack a digestive system. Adult trematodes, or flukes, have an oral and ventral sucker with which they attach to host tissue. Eggs of trematodes hatch into free-swimming miracidia that enter the first intermediate host; two generations of rediae develop; the rediae become cercariae that bore out of the first intermediate host and penetrate the second intermediate host; cercariae encyst as metacercariae; the metacercariae develop into adults in the definitive host. Humans serve as the definitive host for the beef tapeworm, and cattle are the intermediate host. Humans serve as the definitive host and can be an intermediate host for the pork tapeworm. Humans serve as the intermediate host for Echinococcus granulosus; the definitive hosts are dogs, wolves, and foxes. The nematodes that infect humans with their eggs include Ascaris, Trichuris, and Enterobius. The nematodes that infect humans with their larvae include hookworms and Trichinella.

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These patients have a much lower incidence of chronic disease and of liver cancer hair loss cure stem cell 2013 discount dutasteride 0.5 mg mastercard. If this antigen disappears and is replaced by antibodies against it, this usually means that liver disease associated with viral reproduction has diminished. Health care workers and others who are in daily contact with blood have a considerably higher incidence of hepatitis B than members of the general population. The annual incidence has declined from 30,000 cases before the vaccine to under 3000 in 2016, and eventual elimination of the disease is conceivable. Treatment decisions are made on the basis of several factors, such as patient age and the stage of the disease. Combinations of at least two drugs are recommended to minimize development of resistance. Hepatitis C In the 1960s, a previously unsuspected form of transfusiontransmitted hepatitis, now called hepatitis C, appeared. It is often clinically inapparent-few people have recognizable symptoms until about 20 years have elapsed. Often, hepatitis C is detected only during some routine testing, such as for insurance or blood donation. About 25% of chronically infected patients develop liver cirrhosis or liver cancer. In one exceptional case, the disease was transmitted by means of a straw shared for inhaling cocaine. Interestingly, in more than one-third of the cases, a mode of transmission-by contaminated blood, sexual contact, or other means-cannot be identified. Other Hepatitis Viruses Hepatitis D can occur as either acute (coinfection form) or chronic (superinfection form) hepatitis. This negatively stained electron micrograph shows the morphology of the rotavirus (rota = wheel), which gives the virus its name. An infectious dose is estimated to be fewer than 100 viruses, and patients shed billions in every gram of stool. Rectal swabs or fecal samples are cultured from the various animals at the zoo (see the table. Viral Gastroenteritis Acute gastroenteritis is one of the most common diseases of humans. About 90% of cases of acute viral gastroenteritis are caused by either the Rotavirus or Norovirus. Acquired immunity then makes rotavirus infections, except for certain strains, much less common in adults. In most cases, following an incubation period of 2 to 3 days, the patient suffers from low-grade fever, diarrhea, and vomiting, which persists for about a week. Before the vaccine, more than 90% of children in the United States were infected by the age of 3. Rotavirus infections are routinely diagnosed by several types of commercially available tests, such as enzyme immunoassays. Norovirus Noroviruses were first identified following an outbreak of gastroenteritis in Norwalk, Ohio, in 1968. Several similar viruses were later identified, and this group was termed Norwalk-like viruses. All were determined to be members of the caliciviruses (named for the Latin calyx, meaning cup-cup-shaped depressions are visible on the viruses) and are now termed noroviruses. It is not practical to culture them, and they do not infect the usual laboratory animals. The viruses continue to be shed for several days after the patient is asymptomatic. More than 20 million cases of norovirus gastroenteritis occur annually in the United States, but only about 300 deaths. About half of adult Americans show serological evidence that they have been infected. This strain may be more virulent, or more environmentally stable; also, fewer people may have had resistance to it from previous exposure. Natural resistance to a particular strain may last only a few months-at most about 3 years. Cleanup and prevention of transmission following an outbreak on a cruise ship or restaurant, for example, has proved to be a challenging problem. The viruses are unusually persistent on environmental surfaces, including door handles or elevator buttons. Sanitizing hand gels may be used after washing but are not a substitute for washing. Most of the effectiveness of such measures is probably related to mechanical removal, as with hand soap. To decontaminate hard, nonporous surfaces requires solutions containing 1000 to 5000 ppm of hypochlorite (a 1:50 or 1:10 solution of household [5. The availability of such new and sensitive assays has led to recognition of noroviruses as the most common cause (at least half of recent foodborne outbreaks in the United States) of nonbacterial gastroenteritis.

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Bacteriophages are viruses that can kill their host bacterial cells (see Chapter 13 hair loss journey purchase dutasteride now, page 373). In recent years, the United States and Europe have started looking at bacteriophages to replace some antibiotic use. Phages are specific for their host bacteria and may be useful to treat antibiotic-resistant infections. Finally, there is a special need for new antiviral drugs as well as antifungal and antiparasitic drugs effective against helminths and protozoans, because our arsenal in these categories is very limited. Doripenem is a carbapenem, which has an extremely broad spectrum of activity and is especially effective against P. The patient recovers from her infection and has no further complications from her surgery. An antimicrobial drug is a chemical substance that destroys pathogenic microorganisms with minimal damage to host tissues. Agents such as sulfanilamide act as antimetabolites by competitively inhibiting enzyme activity. Natural penicillins produced by Penicillium are effective against gram-positive cocci and spirochetes. Penicillinases (-lactamases) are bacterial enzymes that destroy natural penicillins. Semisynthetic penicillins are resistant to penicillinases and have a broader spectrum of activity than natural penicillins. Cephalosporins inhibit cell wall synthesis and are used against penicillin-resistant strains. Polypeptides such as bacitracin inhibit cell wall synthesis primarily in gram-positive bacteria. Vancomycin inhibits cell wall synthesis and may be used to kill penicillinase-producing staphylococci. Alexander Fleming discovered the first antibiotic, penicillin, in 1928; its first clinical trials were done in 1940. Fungal, protozoan, and helminthic infections are more difficult to treat because these organisms have eukaryotic cells. Narrow-spectrum drugs affect only a select group of microbes (gram-positive cells, for example); broad-spectrum drugs affect a more diverse range of microbes. Superinfections occur when a pathogen develops resistance to the drug being used or when normally resistant microbiota multiply excessively. Chloramphenicol, aminoglycosides, tetracyclines, glycylcyclines, macrolides, streptogramins, oxazolidinones, and pleuromutilins inhibit protein synthesis at 70S ribosomes. Antimicrobials generally act either by directly killing microorganisms (bactericidal) or by inhibiting their growth (bacteriostatic). Other agents, such as chloramphenicol, tetracyclines, and streptomycin, inhibit protein synthesis by acting on 70S ribosomes. Polyenes, such as nystatin and amphotericin B, combine with plasma membrane sterols and are fungicidal. Azoles and allylamines interfere with sterol synthesis and are used to treat cutaneous and systemic mycoses. Griseofulvin interferes with eukaryotic cell division and is used primarily to treat skin infections caused by fungi. In a broth dilution test, the microorganism is grown in liquid media containing different concentrations of a chemotherapeutic agent. Entry inhibitors and fusion inhibitors bind to viral attachment and receptor sites. Chloroquine, artemisinin, quinacrine, diiodohydroxyquin, pentamidine, and metronidazole are used to treat protozoan infections. Many bacterial diseases, previously treatable with antibiotics, have become resistant to antibiotics. Drug resistance factors are transferred horizontally Play Interactive Microbiology between bacteria. The discriminating use of drugs in appropriate concentrations and dosages can minimize resistance. Tests are used to determine which chemotherapeutic agent is most likely to combat a specific pathogen. These tests are used when susceptibility cannot be predicted or when drug resistance arises. In the disk-diffusion test, also known as the Kirby-Bauer test, a bacterial culture is inoculated on an agar medium, and filter paper disks impregnated with chemotherapeutic agents are overlaid on the culture. After incubation, the diameter of the zone of inhibition is used to determine whether the organism is sensitive, intermediate, or resistant to the drug. Some combinations of drugs are synergistic; they are more effective when taken together. Some combinations of drugs are antagonistic; when taken together, both drugs become less effective than when taken alone. What similar problems are encountered with antiviral, antifungal, antiprotozoan, and antihelminthic drugs List the advantages of using two chemotherapeutic agents simultaneously to treat a disease. Chloramphenicol binds to the 50S portion of a ribosome, which will interfere with a. Why can a porin-deficient mutant be detected by its inability to grow on a medium containing a single carbon source such as succinic acid Which antibiotic would you recommend for treating a disease caused by this bacterium

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Accordingly hair loss treatment yoga dutasteride 0.5 mg for sale, viruses are entities that Rickettsias/ Chlamydias Yes Yes Yes No/Yes Yes Yes/No Yes Yes No Viruses Yes No No Yes No No No No Yes because most drugs that would interfere with viral multiplication would also interfere with the functioning of the host cell and therefore are too toxic for clinical use. There are viruses that infect invertebrates, vertebrates, plants, protists, fungi, and bacteria. However, most viruses are able to infect specific types of cells of only one host species. In rare cases, viruses cross the host-species barrier, thus expanding their host range. For the virus to infect the host cell, the outer surface of the virus must chemically interact with specific receptor sites on the surface of the cell. The two complementary components are held together by weak bonds, such as hydrogen bonds. The combination of many attachment and receptor sites leads to a strong association between host cell and virus. For some bacteriophages, the receptor site is part of the cell wall of the host; in other cases, it is part of the fimbriae or flagella. For animal viruses, the receptor sites are on the plasma membranes of the host cells. The potential to use viruses to treat diseases is intriguing because of their narrow host range and their ability to kill their host cells. Contain a protein coat (sometimes itself enclosed by an envelope of lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates) that surrounds the nucleic acid. Cause the synthesis of specialized structures that can transfer the viral nucleic acid to other cells. Although most are quite a bit smaller than bacteria, some of the larger viruses (such as the vaccinia virus) are about the same size as some very small bacteria (such as the mycoplasmas, rickettsias, and chlamydias). Ebola virus 300 nm Chlamydia bacterium elementary body A virion is a complete, fully developed, infectious viral particle composed of nucleic acid and surrounded by a protein coat outside a host cell. Viruses are classified by their nucleic acid and by differences in the structures of their coats. The sizes of several viruses (teal blue) and bacteria (brown) are compared with a human red blood cell, shown below the microbes. Dimensions are given in nanometers (nm) and are either diameters or length by width. There is renewed interest in phage therapy in the United States and western Europe to treat infections caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria. She is taking medications to reduce the fever, but they work only for a few hours. Retrovirus genetic material integrated into human chromosomes makes up about 8% of the human genome. Bacteriophages affect human health and disease by controlling growth of normal and pathogenic bacteria. For example, large numbers of bacteriophages are present in mucus of the mouth and intestine. Mucus is normally considered a physical barrier to infection that protects underlying epithelial tissue. In the first scenario, "kill the winner," bacteriophages kill bacterial colonizers in the body. This puts the bacteriophage where it can encounter the bacterial cells that are its ultimate host. The bacteriophage benefits by having a host for reproduction, and the human host benefits by having the bacteriophage prevent colonization by pathogens. In the second scenario, "kill the competition," some bacteriophages may protect the bacterial microbiome from invasion by other bacteria vying to gain a foothold in the area. For example, in the intestines, Enterococcus bacteria release lytic bacteriophages, from prophages (discussed later in the chapter), when competing enterococci are present-thus killing the competition. In some viruses (such as the influenza virus), the nucleic acid is in several separate segments. The percentage of nucleic acid in relation to protein is about 1% for the influenza virus and about 50% for certain bacteriophages. The total amount of nucleic acid varies from a few thousand nucleotides (or pairs) to as many as 250,000 nucleotides. The structure of the capsid is ultimately determined by the viral nucleic acid and accounts for most of the mass of a virus, especially of small ones. In some viruses, the proteins composing the capsomeres are of a single type; in other viruses, several types of protein may be present. Although you may have produced antibodies to one influenza virus, the virus can mutate and infect you again. General Morphology Viruses may be classified into several different morphological types on the basis of their capsid architecture. The structure of these capsids has been revealed by electron microscopy and a technique called X-ray crystallography. Notice the halo of spikes projecting from the outer surface of each envelope (see Chapter 24). Polyhedral Viruses Many animal, plant, and bacterial viruses are polyhedral, or manysided, viruses.

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A teenaged male with confirmed influenza was hospitalized when he developed respiratory distress hair loss zix purchase dutasteride now. Microbial Diseases of the Nervous System ome of the most devastating infectious diseases are those that affect the nervous system, especially the brain and spinal cord. Damage to these areas can lead to deafness, blindness, learning disabilities, paralysis, and death. Because of the crucial importance of the nervous system, it is strongly protected from accident and infection by bone and other structures. The fluid (cerebrospinal fluid) of the central nervous system is especially vulnerable because it lacks many of the defenses found in the blood. Pathogens capable of causing diseases of the nervous system often have special virulence characteristics that enable them to penetrate these defenses. For example, the pathogen can begin replicating in a peripheral nerve and gradually move into the brain and spinal cord. The protozoan Naegleria fowleri (in the photograph) enters the brain from the olfactory nerve in the nose. In the Clinic You are a nurse in the neonatal intensive care unit, and your newest patient is a 32-week-old infant whose mother had flulike symptoms prior to delivery. The infant required supplemental oxygen for a few hours of life but soon was weaned off oxygen and tolerated her first feeding without difficulty. At 22 hours, you observe a drop in her heart rate, and despite resuscitation efforts, the infant dies. These are the outermost dura mater, the middle arachnoid mater, and the innermost pia mater. Late in the nineteenth century, experiments in which dyes were injected into the body resulted in the staining of all the organs of the body-with the important exception of the brain. Certain capillaries permit some substances to pass from the blood into the brain but restrict others. These capillaries are less permeable than others within the body and are therefore more selective in passing materials. Penicillin is only slightly lipid-soluble; but, if it is taken in very large doses, enough may cross the barrier to be effective. If both the brain and the meninges are affected, the inflammation is called meningoencephalitis. The meninges, whether cranial or spinal, consist of three layers: dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. Between the arachnoid and the pia mater is the subarachnoid space, in which cerebrospinal fluid circulates. Q If a patient has meningitis, what barriers would need to be crossed to result in encephalitis The mortality rate varies with the pathogen but is generally high for an infectious disease today. Meningitis can be caused by different types of pathogens, including viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. Viral meningitis (not to be confused with viral encephalitis, page 637) is probably much more common than bacterial meningitis but tends to be a mild disease. Most cases occur in the summer and fall months and are usually caused by a varied group of viruses termed enteroviruses (see Table 13. Enteroviruses grow well in the throat and intestinal tract and are responsible for an assortment of mostly minor diseases. Viral meningitis can also be an occasional complication of viral infections such as mumps, chickenpox, and influenza. Historically, only three bacterial species have been responsible for most of the meningitis cases and their resulting deaths. Meningitis caused by Haemophilus influenzae type B, once responsible for a majority of cases, has been nearly eliminated in the United States since introduction of an effective vaccine. In adult patients, that is, older than 16 years, about 80% of meningitis cases are now caused by Neisseria meningitidis and Streptococcus pneumoniae. This vaccine may also produce a herd immunity that will benefit the adult population. All three of these pathogens possess a capsule that protects them from phagocytosis as they replicate rapidly in the bloodstream, from which they might enter the cerebrospinal fluid. Death from bacterial meningitis often occurs very quickly, probably from shock and inflammation caused by the release of endotoxins of the gram-negative pathogens or the release of cell wall fragments (peptidoglycans and teichoic acids) from gram-positive bacteria. Nearly 50 other species of bacteria have been reported to be opportunistic pathogens that occasionally cause meningitis. Especially important are Listeria monocytogenes, group B streptococci, staphylococci, and certain gram-negative bacteria. It was given the name Haemophilus influenzae because the microorganism was erroneously thought to be the causative agent of the influenza pandemics of 1889 and World War I. Haemophilus refers to the need the microorganism has for factors in blood for growth (hemo = blood; philus = loving).

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You notice that wounds infected by Acinetobacter baumannii are not responding to antibiotics hair loss in men 501 purchase line dutasteride. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reports that the antibioticresistance genes found in A. Cephalosporin-resistance genes are on the chromosome, tetracycline resistance is encoded by a plasmid, and streptomycin resistance is associated with a transposon. It includes the study of genes: how they carry information, how they replicate and pass to subsequent generations of cells or between organisms, and how the expression of their information within an organism determines its characteristics. Each strand has a string of alternating sugar and phosphate groups (its sugar-phosphate backbone), and a nitrogenous base is attached to each sugar in the backbone. The two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between their nitrogenous bases. The base pairs always occur in a specific way: adenine always pairs with thymine, and cytosine always pairs with guanine. But 1000 of these four bases, the number contained in an average-sized gene, can be arranged in 41000 different ways. This astronomically large number explains how genes can be varied enough to provide all the information a cell needs to grow and perform its functions. The genetic code, the set of rules that determines how a nucleotide sequence is converted into the amino acid sequence of a protein, is discussed in more detail later in this chapter. Each offspring cell receives one of the original strands from the parent, thus ensuring one strand that functions correctly. Much of cellular metabolism is concerned with translating the genetic message of genes into specific proteins. When the ultimate molecule for which a gene codes (a protein, for example) has been produced, we say that the gene has been expressed. This type of polyp is usually difficult to see with a colonoscopy because it is not raised and can be the same color as the colon wall. It includes the study of genes: how they are replicated, expressed, and passed on from one generation to another. Mutations introduce change into this process-ultimately leading to new or lost functions. Vibrio cholerae, shown above, produces an enterotoxin that causes diarrhea and severe dehydration, which can be fatal if left untreated. Biofilms: Biofilms, such as the one seen here growing on a toothbrush bristle, are produced by altered bacterial gene expression when populations are large enough. This process has occurred with Staphylococcus aureus, which is currently resistant to beta-lactam antibiotics such as penicillin. The use of genomics to track Zika virus is described in the Clinical Focus box on page 218. In microbes, most proteins are either enzymatic (catalyze particular reactions) or structural (participate in large functional complexes such as membranes or flagella). Even phenotypes that depend on structural macromolecules such as lipids or polysaccharides rely indirectly on proteins. For instance, the structure of a complex lipid or polysaccharide molecule results from catalytic activities of enzymes that synthesize, process, and degrade those molecules. Where thymine is present on the original strand, only adenine can fit into place on the new strand; where guanine is present on the original strand, only cytosine can fit into place, and so on. The chromosome is looped and folded and attached at one or several points to the plasma membrane. Transcription New combinations of genes Translation Cell metabolizes and grows Recombinant cell Offspring cells replaced by replication enzymes. The carbon atoms of the sugar component of each nucleotide are numbered 1 (pronounced "one prime") to 5. For the paired bases to be next to each other, the sugar components in one strand are upside down relative to the other. One new strand, called the leading strand, is synthesized continuously in the 5 S 3 direction (from a template parental strand running 3 S 5). Hydrogen bonds form between new complementary nucleotides and each strand of the parental template to form new base pairs. Enzymes catalyze the formation of sugar-phosphate bonds between sequential nucleotides on each resulting daughter strand. The sugar-phosphate backbone of one strand is upside down relative to the backbone of the other strand. The energy is supplied from the nucleotides, which are actually nucleoside triphosphates. Two replication forks move in opposite directions away from the origin of replication. Because the bacterial chromosome is a closed loop, the replication forks eventually meet when replication is completed. Much evidence shows an association between the bacterial plasma membrane and the origin of replication. Typically, mistakes are made at a rate of only 1 in every 10 billion bases incorporated. As each new base is added, the enzyme evaluates whether it forms the proper complementary base-pairing structure. If not, the enzyme excises the improper base and replaces it with the correct one. We now take a closer look at these two processes as they occur in a bacterial cell.

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These diseases are all prevented by controlling exposure to insect and tick bites hair loss 3 month old baby discount dutasteride american express. A 22-year-old soldier returning from a tour of duty in Iraq has three painless skin ulcers. Ovoid, protozoa-like bodies are observed within her macrophages by examination with a light microscope. In 2014, at least four cases of pneumonic plague were acquired from a dog with the disease. Plague has been most commonly diagnosed by isolating the bacterium and then sending it to a laboratory for identification. A rapid diagnostic test, however, can reliably detect the presence of the capsular antigen of Y. A number of antibiotics, including gentamicin and fluoroquinolones, are effective. A vaccine is available for people likely to come into contact with infected fleas during field operations or for laboratory workers exposed to the pathogen. Lyme Disease (Lyme Borreliosis) In 1975, a cluster of disease cases in young people that was first diagnosed as rheumatoid arthritis was reported near the city of Lyme, Connecticut. The seasonal occurrence (summer months), lack of contagiousness among family members, and descriptions of an unusual skin rash that appeared several weeks before the first symptoms suggested a tickborne disease. In 1983, a spirochete that was later named Borrelia burgdorferi was identified as the cause. Often in these locales, the tick and Borrelia species differ from those in the United States. The nymphal stage of the tick feeds on infected mice and is the most likely to infect humans, even though adult ticks are about twice as likely to carry the bacterial pathogen. This is because nymphal ticks are small and less likely to be noticed before the infection is transmitted. Deer are important in maintaining the disease because the ticks feed and mate on them. Although their blood may contain a few of the pathogens, they are much less likely than mice to carry nymphs or to infect the nymphs. Relapsing Fever Except for the species that causes Lyme disease (discussed below), all members of the spirochete genus Borrelia cause relapsing fever. In the United States, the disease is transmitted by soft ticks that feed on rodents. The incidence of relapsing fever increases during the summer months, when the activity of rodents and arthropods increases. Three or four relapses may occur, each shorter and less severe than the initial fever. Each recurrence is caused by a different antigenic type of the spirochete, which evades existing immunity. The first and second feedings, as a larva and then as a nymph, are usually on a field mouse. These feedings are separated by several months, and the ability of the spirochete to remain viable in the disease-tolerant field mice is crucial to maintaining the disease in the wild. They do not feed for about 24 hours, and it usually requires 2 or 3 days of attachment before transfer of bacteria and infection occur. The first symptom of Lyme disease is usually a rash that appears at the bite site. Spring Summer Fall and Winter (a) the tick, Ixodes scapularis, has a 2-year life cycle in which it requires three blood meals. The tick is infected by its first blood meal and can pass on the infection to a human in its second. During a second phase, in the absence of effective treatment, there is often evidence that the heart is affected. Incapacitating, chronic neurological symptoms, such as facial paralysis, oppressive fatigue, and memory loss may be present. In a third phase, months or years later, some patients develop arthritis that may affect them for years. Immune responses to the presence of the bacteria are probably the cause of this joint damage. For example, patients who have progressed to the stage of Lyme arthritis appear to have considerable immunity against reinfection, whereas patients at the earlier stages of the disease do not. Diagnosis of Lyme disease depends partly on the symptoms and an index of suspicion based on the prevalence in the geographic area. Physicians are cautioned that serological tests must be interpreted in conjunction with clinical symptoms and the likelihood of exposure to infection. Also, after effective antibiotic treatment eliminates the bacteria, antibodies-even IgM antibodies-often persist for years and may confuse later attempts at diagnosis. Several antibiotics are effective in treating the disease, although in the later stages, large amounts and very extended administration times may be needed. Patients suffer from a flulike disease with high fever and headache; the fatality rate is less than 5%. Typhus the various typhus diseases are caused by rickettsias, bacteria that are obligate intracellular parasites of eukaryotes.

Irmak, 60 years: The enzyme-regulated energy-requiring reactions are mostly involved in anabolism, the building of complex organic molecules from simpler ones.

Mufassa, 26 years: Congenital rubella syndrome can affect a fetus when a woman contracts rubella during the first trimester of her pregnancy.

Owen, 45 years: An Hib conjugated vaccine directed against the capsular polysaccharide antigen is available.

Pavel, 65 years: The use of eggs to create vaccines can be avoided by cellculture techniques, in which the virus is grown in vats of cells.

Ismael, 54 years: This procedure was first used in the case of a Wisconsin girl bitten by a rabid cat and has come to be called the Milwaukee protocol.

Folleck, 27 years: Their use in one community in India ended the main breeding location for Asian tiger mosquitoes.

Armon, 21 years: The greening represents a partial destruction of the red blood cells caused mostly by the action of bacteria-produced hydrogen peroxide, but it appears only when the bacteria grow in the presence of oxygen.

Aidan, 30 years: Intestinal colonization with microorganisms in a pregnant mouse increases the number of monocytes in newborn mice, too.

Peratur, 55 years: The spleen contains lymphocytes and macrophages that monitor the blood for microbes and secreted products such as toxins, much like lymph nodes monitor lymph.

Brontobb, 42 years: Transport media are usually not nutritive and are designed to prolong viability of fastidious pathogens.

Ugolf, 41 years: Number of cells (b) Conversion of the number of cells in a population into the logarithmic expression of this number.

Masil, 35 years: Halogens the halogens, particularly iodine and chlorine, are effective antimicrobial agents, both alone and as constituents of inorganic or organic compounds.

Arokkh, 56 years: Instead of using glass lenses, an electron microscope uses electromagnetic lenses to focus a beam of electrons onto a specimen.

Ivan, 34 years: The rotation of the filaments produces a movement of the outer sheath that propels the spirochetes in a spiral motion.

Mirzo, 40 years: In parts of the world where the cost of antibiotics is prohibitive, a dilute solution of povidoneiodine has proven effective.

Kelvin, 58 years: However, the process can also produce yogurt from milk, sauerkraut from fresh cabbage, and pickles from cucumbers.

Reto, 47 years: Once the viruses have begun to multiply in the respiratory tract and local lymph nodes in the neck, they reach the salivary glands via the blood.

Vatras, 23 years: Among the more recent additions to the penicillin family are the ureidopenicillins, such as mezlocillin and azlocillin.

Javier, 64 years: To this end, specific series of biochemical tests have been developed for fast identification in hospital laboratories.

Spike, 36 years: Other effects include increased mucus secretion (a runny nose, for example) and smooth muscle contraction, which in the respiratory bronchi results in breathing difficulty.