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Both the thin and thick segments are impermeable to water gastritis alcohol purchase genuine gasex online, but solutes diffuse out of the thin segment, and Na+, Cl-, and K+ are symported from the filtrate into the interstitial fluid in the thick segments (figure 26. The movement of solutes, but not water, across the wall of the ascending limbs causes the osmolality of the filtrate to decrease from 1200 to about 100 mOsm/kg by the time the filtrate again reaches the kidney cortex. The volume of the filtrate does not change as it passes through the ascending limbs. As a result, the filtrate entering the distal convoluted tubules is dilute, compared with the concentration of the surrounding interstitial fluid, which has an osmolality of about 300 mOsm/kg. Explain how antidiuretic hormone, the reninangiotensin-aldosterone hormone mechanism, and atrial natriuretic hormone influence the concentration and volume of urine. Urine can be dilute or very concentrated, and it can be produced in large or small amounts. Filtrate reabsorption in the proximal convoluted tubules and the descending limbs of the loops of Henle is obligatory and therefore remains relatively constant. However, filtrate reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts is tightly regulated and can change dramatically, depending on the conditions to which the body is exposed. If homeostasis requires the elimination of a large volume of dilute urine, the dilute filtrate can pass through the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts with little change in concentration. On the other hand, if water must be conserved to maintain homeostasis, water is reabsorbed from the filtrate as it passes through the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts. The regulation of urine concentration and volume involves hormonal mechanisms, described next, as well as autoregulation and the sympathetic nervous system, described earlier. Each mechanism is activated by different stimuli, but they work together to achieve homeostasis. At the tip of the renal pyramid, filtrate concentration is 1200 mOsm/kg, which is equal to the interstitial fluid concentration. By the time the filtrate reaches the cortex, the concentration is 100 mOsm/kg, and an additional 25% of NaCl has been reabsorbed. When the juxtaglomerular cells detect reduced stretch of the afferent arteriole, and thus a drop in afferent arteriole pressure, they secrete renin. In addition, the macula densa cells signal the juxtaglomerular cells to secrete renin when the Na+ concentration of the filtrate drops. Upon secretion, renin enters the blood and converts angiotensinogen, a plasma protein produced by the liver, to angiotensin I. Chloride ions move with the Na+ because they are attracted to the positive charge of Na+. The rate of renin secretion decreases if blood pressure in the afferent arteriole increases, or if the Na+ concentration of the filtrate increases as it passes by the macula densa of the juxtaglomerular apparatuses. A large decrease in the concentration of Na+ in the interstitial fluid acts directly on the aldosterone-secreting cells of the adrenal cortex to increase the rate of aldosterone secretion. Aldosterone, a steroid hormone secreted by the cortical cells of the adrenal glands (see chapter 18), passes through the blood from the adrenal glands to the cells in the distal convoluted tubules and the collecting ducts. Aldosterone molecules diffuse through the plasma membranes and bind to receptor molecules within the cells. The combination of aldosterone molecules with their receptor molecules increases synthesis of the transport proteins that increase the transport of Na+ across the basal and apical membranes of tubule cells. As a consequence, the concentration of Na+ in the distal convoluted tubules and the collecting ducts remains high. Increases in blood K+ levels act directly on the adrenal cortex to stimulate aldosterone secretion, whereas decreases in blood K+ levels decrease aldosterone secretion (see chapter 27). In contrast to diabetes insipidus, diabetes mellitus (me-lts) refers to the production of a large volume of urine that contains a high concentration of glucose (mellitus, honeyed, sweet). Cells called osmoreceptor cells in the supraoptic nucleus are very sensitive to even slight changes in the osmolality of the interstitial fluid. Action potentials are then propagated along the axons of the Predict 3 Drugs that increase urine volume are called diuretics. How does aldosterone affect urine concentration, urine volume, and blood pressure This condition damages renal glomeruli and ultimately destroys functional nephrons through progressive scar tissue formation, mediated in part by an inflammatory response. The damaged glomeruli no longer filter the blood effectively, allowing proteins to pass through the filtration membrane and be excreted in the urine. The presence of protein in the urine of people who have type 2 diabetes strongly suggests significant diabetic nephropathy, which can lead to end-stage renal failure. About 1 in 14 Americans over age 30 have some degree of type 2 diabetes mellitus, and most hemodialysis patients have type 2 diabetes mellitus. This causes exaggerated efferent arteriole vasoconstriction and consequently increased glomeru- lar capillary pressure. The increased glomerular capillary pressure damages the glomerular basement membrane, causing it to thicken and become more permeable. Because the glomerular basement membrane in patients with diabetes mellitus is more permeable than normal, plasma proteins cross the filtration membrane and enter the urine.

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However gastritis symptoms upper right quadrant pain order gasex with mastercard, this may be less of a decrease in the secretory activity of the thyroid gland than a compensation for the decreased lean body mass in aging people. Age-related damage to the thyroid gland by the immune system can occur and is more common in women than in men. Blood levels of Ca2 may decline slightly because of reduced dietary calcium intake and vitamin D levels. The greatest risk is loss of bone matrix as parathyroid hormone increases to + maintain blood levels of Ca2 within their normal range. Reproductive hormone secretion gradually declines in elderly men, and women experience menopause, as described in chapter 28. However, there is an age-related probability of developing type 2 diabetes mellitus for those who have the familial tendency, and the incidence of the condition is correlated with age-related increases in body weight. Fewer immature lymphocytes are able to mature and become functional, and the immune system becomes less effective in protecting the body. The sweet, or acetone, breath is derived from the fact that, when starved from glucose, cells begin to catalyze lipids, and the by-products of this metabolism are acetone and other molecules chemically related to acetone. However, if Dylan keeps eating candy and drinking sugary soda, elevated blood glucose levels will continue to dehydrate Dylan and his neurons can become dehydrated. Dylan may also experience a sudden weight gain because of sugar intake while injecting insulin. His cells will be able to use the extra glucose and may convert it to adipose tissue. The first piece of information is that, although Dylan is always hungry and eating, he is losing weight. You learned in this chapter that two of the most important hormones for metabolism and blood glucose regulation are insulin and glucagon. The disease most often affiliated with disruptions in insulin regulation is diabetes mellitus. Recall from chapter 3 that membrane transport proteins can be saturated by their transport molecule. The reason Dylan is always thirsty is that too much glucose is filtered out of his blood in his kidneys to be reabsorbed; the excess filtered glucose saturates its transport molecule. In the filtrate, the glucose has an osmotic effect and prevents the kidneys from 18. Oxytocin promotes uterine contractions during delivery and causes milk letdown in lactating women. Both hormones regulate the production of gametes and reproductive hormones (testosterone in males, estrogen and progesterone in females). The pituitary gland secretes at least nine hormones that regulate numerous body functions as well as other endocrine glands. The hypothalamus regulates pituitary gland activity through neurohormones and action potentials. The posterior pituitary develops from the floor of the brain and consists of the infundibulum and the neurohypophysis. The hypothalamohypophysial portal system connects the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary. Through the portal system, the neurohormones inhibit or stimulate hormone production in the anterior pituitary. The hypothalamohypophysial tract connects the hypothalamus and the posterior pituitary. The neurohormones move down the axons of the tract and are secreted from the posterior pituitary. The thyroid gland is composed of small, hollow balls of cells called follicles, which contain thyroglobulin. Epinephrine accounts for 80% and norepinephrine for 20% of the adrenal medulla hormones. Epinephrine increases blood glucose levels, the use of glycogen and glucose by skeletal muscle, and heart rate and force of contraction. It also causes vasoconstriction in the skin and viscera and vasodilation in skeletal and cardiac muscle. Norepinephrine and epinephrine stimulate cardiac muscle and cause the constriction of most peripheral blood vessels. Release of adrenal medulla hormones is mediated by the sympathetic nervous system in response to emotions, injury, stress, exercise, and low blood glucose. Iodide ions are taken into the follicles by active transport, oxidized, and bound to tyrosine molecules in thyroglobulin. Thyroglobulin is taken into the follicular cells and broken down; T3 and T4 diffuse from the follicles to the blood. The plasma proteins prolong the half-life of T and T and regulate 3 4 the levels of T3 and T4 in the blood. T3 and T4 bind with nuclear receptor molecules and initiate new protein synthesis. T and T increase the rate of glucose, lipid, and protein metabo3 4 lism in many tissues, thus increasing body temperature. Aldosterone acts on the kidneys to increase sodium and to decrease potassium and hydrogen levels in the blood.

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Up-regulation results in an increase in the rate of receptor synthesis in the target cells gastritis quimica buy gasex 100 caps amex, which increases the total number of receptor molecules in a cell (figure 17. An example of up-regulation is a process that occurs to stimulate ovulation of the oocyte. This type of multilevel manipulation allows hormone levels to be very precisely controlled and enables the timing of certain processes to be tightly regulated. Hormone 1 bound to its receptor Hormone 1 receptor Target cell for hormone 1 Hormone 2 cannot bind to this receptor. Predict 3 Ovaries secrete the hormone estrogen in greater amounts after menstruation and a few days before ovulation. Among its many effects, estrogen causes the up-regulation of receptors in the uterus for another hormone secreted by the ovaries, called progesterone. Progesterone, which is secreted after ovulation, prepares the uterine wall for possible implantation of an embryo. The shape and chemical nature of each receptor site allow only certain hormones to bind. Additionally, in order for a target cell to respond to its hormone, the hormone must bind to its receptor. Classes of Receptors Lipid-soluble and water-soluble hormones each bind to their own unique class of receptors. Because of these properties, they easily diffuse through the plasma membrane and bind to nuclear receptors (figure 17. Nuclear receptors are most often found in the cell nucleus, but they can also be located in the cytoplasm. The lipid-soluble hormones include thyroid hormones and steroid hormones (testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, aldosterone, and cortisol). Water-soluble hormones are large molecules and cannot pass through the plasma membrane. When a hormone binds to a receptor on the outside of the plasma membrane, the hormone-receptor complex initiates a response inside the cell. Hormones that bind to membrane-bound receptors include proteins, peptides, and some amino acid derivatives, such as epinephrine and norepinephrine. Changing the receptor number at a target ensures an optimal target tissue response to a hormone. For example, the response of some target tissues rapidly decreases over time through desensitization. Densensitization occurs when the number of receptors rapidly decreases after exposure to certain hormones, a phenomenon called down-regulation (figure 17. Because most receptor molecules are degraded over time, a decrease in their synthesis rate reduces the total number of receptor molecules in a cell. In this way, the reproductive system stays active and is less likely to stop working. For example, testosterone stimulates the synthesis of the proteins that are responsible for male secondary sex characteristics, such as the formation of muscle mass and the typical male body structure. The steroid hormone aldosterone affects its target cells in the kidneys by stimulating the synthesis of proteins that increase the rate of Na+ and K+ transport. The result is a reduction in the amount of Na+ and an increase in the amount of K+ lost in the urine. Other hormones that produce responses through nuclear receptor mechanisms include thyroid hormones and vitamin D. Target cells that synthesize new protein molecules in response to hormonal stimuli normally have a latent period of several hours between the time the hormones bind to their receptors and the time responses are observed. Describe how a hormone that crosses the plasma membrane interacts with its receptor and how it affects protein synthesis. Why is there normally a latent period between the time a hormone binds to its receptor and the time responses are observed In the nucleus, the combination of the hormone and the receptor initiates protein synthesis, described later in this chapter. What characteristics of a hormone receptor make it specific for one type of hormone Membrane-bound receptors activate responses in two ways: (1) Some receptors alter the activity of G proteins at the inner surface of the plasma membrane. These intracellular pathways elicit specific responses in cells, including the production of intracellular mediators. An intracellular mediator is a chemical produced inside a cell once a hormone or another chemical messenger binds to certain membrane-bound receptors (table 17. The intracellular mediator then activates specific cellular processes inside the cell in response to the hormone. In some cases, this coordinated set of events is referred to as a second-messenger system. G proteins consist of three subunits; from largest to smallest, they are called alpha, beta, and gamma (; figure 17. The G proteins are so named because one of the subunits binds to guanine nucleotides. After a hormone binds to the receptor on the outside of a cell, the receptor changes shape (figure 17.

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Efferent action potentials then travel from the cardioregulatory center to the heart through both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system healthy liquid diet gastritis gasex 100 caps order without a prescription. When blood pressure rises, the arterial walls are stretched farther, and the afferent action potential frequency increases (figure 20. When blood pressure decreases, the arterial walls are stretched to a lesser extent, and the afferent action potential frequency decreases. In response to elevated blood pressure, the baroreceptor reflexes reduce sympathetic stimulation and increase parasympathetic stimulation of the heart, causing the heart rate to slow. Decreased blood pressure causes decreased parasympathetic and increased sympathetic stimulation of the heart, resulting in an increased heart rate and force of contraction. Withdrawal of parasympathetic stimulation is primarily responsible for increases in heart rate up to approximately 100 bpm. Larger increases in heart rate, especially during exercise, result from sympathetic stimulation. The baroreceptor reflexes are homeostatic because they keep the blood pressure within a narrow range of values that is adequate to maintain blood flow to the tissues. Chemoreceptors primarily sensitive to blood oxygen levels are found in the carotid and aortic bodies. These small structures are located near large arteries close to the brain and heart, and they monitor blood flowing to the brain and the rest of the body. A dramatic decrease in blood oxygen levels, as occurs during asphyxiation, activates the carotid and aortic body chemoreceptor reflexes. In carefully controlled experiments, it is possible to isolate the effects of the carotid and aortic body chemoreceptor reflexes from other reflexes, such as the medullary chemoreceptor reflexes. These experiments indicate that a reduction in blood oxygen results in decreased heart rate and increased vasoconstriction. The vasoconstriction causes blood pressure to rise, which promotes blood delivery despite the decrease in heart rate. The carotid and aortic body chemoreceptor reflexes may protect the heart for a short time by slowing the heart rate, thereby reducing its need for oxygen. The carotid and aortic body chemoreceptor reflexes normally do not function independently of other regulatory mechanisms. When all the regulatory mechanisms function together, large, prolonged decreases in blood oxygen levels increase the heart rate. Low blood oxygen levels also increase stimulation of respiratory movements (see chapter 23). Afferent action potentials from these stretch receptors influence the cardioregulatory center, which causes the heart rate to increase. The reduced oxygen levels that exist at high altitudes can cause an increase in heart rate even when blood carbon dioxide levels remain low. However, the carotid and aortic body chemoreceptor reflexes are more important in regulating respiration (see chapter 23) and blood vessel constriction (see chapter 21) than heart rate. Effect of Extracellular Ion Concentration the ions that affect cardiac muscle function are the same ions (K+, Ca2+, and Na+) that influence membrane potentials in other electrically excitable tissues. However, cardiac muscle responds to these ions differently than nerve or skeletal muscle tissue does. For example, the extracellular levels of Na+ rarely deviate enough from normal to significantly affect cardiac muscle function. Excess extracellular K+ in cardiac tissue causes the heart rate and stroke volume to decrease. A twofold increase in extracellular K+ results in heart block, which is the loss of action potential conduction through the heart. The excess K+ in the extracellular fluid causes partial depolarization of the resting membrane potential, resulting in a reduced amplitude of action potentials and, because of the reduced amplitude, a decreased rate at which action potentials are conducted along cardiac muscle cells. In many cases, partially depolarized cardiac muscle cells spontaneously produce action potentials because the membrane potential reaches threshold. Elevated blood levels of K+ can produce enough ectopic action potentials to cause fibrillation. The reduced action potential amplitude also results in less Ca2+ entering the sarcoplasm of the cell; thus, the strength of cardiac muscle contraction lessens. Although the extracellular concentration of K+ is normally small, a reduction in extracellular K+ causes the resting membrane potential to become hyperpolarized; as a consequence, it takes longer for the membrane to depolarize to threshold. Ultimately, the reduction in extracellular K+ results in a decrease in heart rate. Chemoreceptors sensitive to changes in blood pH and carbon dioxide levels are found in the medulla oblongata. A drop in blood pH and a rise in carbon dioxide decrease parasympathetic and increase sympathetic stimulation of the heart, resulting in increased heart rate and force of contraction (figure 20. The increased cardiac output causes greater blood flow through the lungs, where carbon dioxide is eliminated from the body. This helps lower the blood carbon dioxide level to within its normal range and helps increase blood pH. The cardioregulatory center in the brain decreases sympathetic stimulation of the heart and adrenal medulla and increases parasympathetic stimulation of the heart. Stimulus Receptors and control center: Baroreceptors in the carotid arteries and aorta detect a decrease in blood pressure. The cardioregulatory center in the brain increases sympathetic stimulation of the heart and adrenal medulla and decreases parasympathetic stimulation of the heart. Control centers in the brain decrease stimulation of the heart and adrenal medulla.

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If the pituitary gland does not function properly because of abnormal development gastritis diet emedicine order gasex now, a female does not begin to menstruate at puberty. In contrast, if a female has had normal menstrual cycles and later stops menstruating, the condition is called secondary amenorrhea. Many female athletes and ballet dancers who pursue rigorous training schedules have secondary amenorrhea. Increased food intake, for anorexic women, and reduced training, for women who exercise intensely, generally restore normal hormone secretion and normal menstrual cycles. In addition, secondary amenorrhea can occur due to a lack of normal hormone secretion from the ovaries, which can be caused by autoimmune diseases that attack the ovary or by polycystic ovarian disease, in which cysts in the ovary produce large amounts of androgens that are converted to estrogens by other body tissues. Other hormone-secreting tumors of the ovary can also disrupt the normal menstrual cycle and result in amenorrhea. The cells later become columnar, and the layer of cells folds to form tubular spiral glands. Blood vessels called spiral arteries project through the delicate connective tissue that separates the individual spiral glands to supply nutrients to the endometrial cells. After ovulation, during the secretory phase, the endometrium becomes thicker, and the spiral glands develop to a greater extent and begin to secrete small amounts of a fluid rich in glycogen. Approximately 7 days after ovulation, or about day 21 of the menstrual cycle, the endometrium is prepared to receive a developing embryonic mass, if fertilization has occurred. If the developing embryonic mass arrives in the uterus too early or too late, the endometrium does not provide a suitable environment for it. Estrogen causes the endometrial cells and, to a lesser degree, the myometrial cells to divide during the proliferative phase. It also makes the uterine tissue more sensitive to progesterone by stimulating the synthesis of progesterone receptor molecules within the uterine cells. After ovulation, during the secretory phase, progesterone from the corpus luteum binds to the progesterone receptors, resulting in cellular hypertrophy in the endometrium and myometrium and causing the endometrial cells to become secretory. Estrogen increases the tendency of the smooth muscle cells of the uterus to contract in response to stimuli, but progesterone inhibits smooth muscle contractions. When progesterone levels increase while estrogen levels are low, contractions of the uterine smooth muscle are reduced. In uterine cycles in which pregnancy does not occur, progesterone and estrogen levels decline to low levels as the corpus luteum degenerates. The drop in these hormones initiates the beginning of the next uterine cycle, beginning with the next menses. As a consequence of low progesterone and estrogen levels, the uterine lining begins to degenerate. The spiral arteries constrict in a rhythmic pattern for longer and longer periods as progesterone levels fall. As a result, all but the basal parts of the spiral glands become ischemic and then necrotic. The necrotic endometrium, mucous secretions, and a small amount of blood released from the spiral arteries make up the menstrual fluid. Decreases in progesterone levels and increases in inflammatory substances that stimulate myometrial smooth muscle cells cause uterine contractions, which expel the menstrual fluid from the uterus through the cervix and into the vagina. Predict 7 Predict the effect on the endometrium of maintaining high progesterone levels in the blood, including the period of time during which estrogen normally increases following menstruation. The uterine cycle can be divided into three phases: (1) menses, (2) the proliferative phase, and (3) the secretory phase. As described earlier, menses is the time when the functional layer of the endometrium is sloughed and expelled from the uterus. The proliferative phase and secretory phase involve the regeneration of and changes in the endometrium following menses. During the proliferative phase, the endometrium of the uterus begins to regenerate after menses. It sloughs off as the spiral arteries remain in a constricted state in response to low levels of progesterone, depriving the functional layer of an adequate blood supply. As a result, the epithelial cells and loose connective tissue on which they rest form the tubular, spiral glands. The spiral arteries found in the loose connective tissue between the spiral glands nourish the functional layer. The spiral arteries can be seen in the loose connective tissue between the spiral glands. Although orgasm is a pleasurable component of sexual intercourse, it is not necessary for females to experience an orgasm for fertilization to occur. Female Fertility and Pregnancy After sperm cells are ejaculated into the vagina during sexual intercourse, they are transported through the cervix, the body of the uterus, and the uterine tubes to the ampulla (figure 28. The forces responsible for moving sperm cells through the female reproductive tract include the swimming ability of the sperm cells and possibly the muscular contractions of the uterus and the uterine tubes. During sexual intercourse, oxytocin is released from the posterior pituitary of the female, and the semen introduced into the vagina contains prostaglandins. Both of these substances stimulate smooth muscle contractions in the uterus and uterine tubes, which may also enhance the movement of sperm cells through the female reproductive tract. While passing through the vagina, uterus, and uterine tubes, the sperm cells undergo capacitation (k-pasi-tshn), which involves the removal of proteins and the modification of glycoproteins of the sperm cell plasma membranes. Following capacitation, as the sperm cells move through the female reproductive tract, some of them release acrosomal enzymes. These enzymes help the sperm cells penetrate the cervical mucus, cumulus mass, zona pellucida, and oocyte plasma membrane. Female Sexual Behavior and the Female Sexual Act the female sex drive, like the sex drive in males, depends on hormones. The adrenal gland and other tissues, such as the liver, convert steroids, such as progesterone, to androgens.

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The main part of the uterus gastritis erosiva buy gasex 100 caps otc, the body, is the region between the fundus and the cervix. A slight constriction called the isthmus marks the junction of the cervix and the body. Internally, the uterine cavity continues as the cervical canal, which opens through the ostium into the vagina. However, recall from chapter 1 that the human microbiota also includes viruses, protists, and fungi. The continued division causes an accumulation of mutations, and eventually the cell becomes cancerous. The high-risk types can develop into cervical cancer or several forms of head and neck cancers, particularly oropharyngeal cancer. Vaccination for all preteens and previously unvaccinated people through age 26 is recommended by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The Pap test involves collecting cells from the surface of the cervix for examination under a microscope. If the cells are abnormally shaped, as precancerous or cancerous cells would be, it is indicative that further testing should be done. Eventually, with continued vaccination, the oncogenic types may become less relevant to human health. The uterus is supported by the broad ligament, the round ligaments (see figure 28. The broad ligament is a peritoneal fold extending from the lateral margins of the uterus to the wall of the pelvis on either side. The round ligaments extend from the uterus through the inguinal canals to the labia majora of the external genitalia, and the uterosacral ligaments attach the lateral wall of the uterus to the sacrum. Normally, the uterus is anteverted, meaning that the body of the uterus is tipped slightly anteriorly. In addition to the ligaments, skeletal muscles of the pelvic floor support the uterus inferiorly. The uterine wall is composed of three layers: (1) the perimetrium, (2) the myometrium, and (3) the endometrium (see figure 28. The perimetrium (per-i-mtr-m), or serous layer, is the peritoneum that covers the uterus. The next layer, just deep to the perimetrium, is the myometrium (mmtr-m), or muscular layer, composed of a thick layer of smooth muscle. The myometrium accounts for the bulk of the uterine wall and is the thickest layer of smooth muscle in the body. In the cervix, the muscular layer contains less muscle and more dense connective tissue. The cervix is therefore more rigid and less contractile than the rest of the uterus. The innermost layer of the uterus is the endometrium (end-mtr-m), or mucous membrane, which consists of a simple columnar epithelial lining and a connective tissue layer called the lamina propria. Simple tubular glands, called spiral glands, are scattered about the lamina propria and open through the epithelium into the uterine cavity. The endometrium consists of two layers: (1) the basal layer and (2) the functional layer. The thin, deep basal layer is the deepest part of the lamina propria and is continuous with the myometrium. The thicker, superficial functional layer consists of most of the lamina propria and the endothelium and lines the uterine cavity itself. The functional layer is so named because it undergoes changes and sloughing during the female menstrual cycle. Small spiral arteries of the lamina propria supply blood to the functional layer of the endometrium. These blood vessels play an important role in the cyclic changes of the endometrium. The mucus fills the cervical canal and acts as a barrier to substances that could pass from the vagina into the uterus. Near ovulation, the consistency of the mucus changes, easing the passage of sperm cells from the vagina into the uterus. Mons pubis Prepuce Clitoris Labia majora Labia minora Vestibule Pudendal cleft Clinical perineum Urethra Vagina Anus Vagina the vagina (v-jn) is the female organ of copulation, receiving the penis during intercourse. The vagina is a tube about 10 cm long that extends from the uterus to the outside of the body (see figure 28. Longitudinal ridges called columns extend the length of the anterior and posterior vaginal walls, and several transverse ridges called rugae (roog) extend between the anterior and posterior columns. The superior, domed part of the vagina, the fornix (frniks), is attached to the sides of the cervix, so that a part of the cervix extends into the vagina. The wall of the vagina consists of an outer muscular layer and an inner mucous membrane. The muscular layer is smooth muscle that allows the vagina to increase in size to accommodate the penis during intercourse and to stretch greatly during childbirth. The mucous membrane is moist stratified squamous epithelium that forms a protective surface layer.

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Systemic inflammation is an inflammatory response that occurs in many parts of the body gastritis toddler 100 caps gasex purchase with mastercard. In addition to the local symptoms at the sites of inflammation, three additional features can be present: 1. Red bone marrow produces and releases large numbers of neutrophils, which promote phagocytosis. Pyrogens (prjenz; fire-producing) are chemicals released by microorganisms, macrophages, neutrophils, and other cells. As a consequence, heat production and heat conservation increase, raising body temperature. Fever promotes the activities of the immune system, such as phagocytosis, and inhibits the growth of some microorganisms. In severe cases of systemic inflammation, increased vascular permeability is so widespread that large amounts of fluid are lost from the blood into the tissues. Chemotaxis, increased vascular permeability, increased blood flow Increased numbers of white blood cells and chemical mediators at site of tissue damage Bacteria are contained, destroyed, and phagocytized. Describe the origin, development, activation, proliferation, and inhibition of lymphocytes. Define antibody-mediated immunity and cell-mediated immunity and name the cells responsible for each. Diagram the structure of an antibody and describe the effects produced by antibodies. Discuss the primary and secondary responses to an antigen and explain the basis for long-lasting immunity. Components of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms are examples of foreign antigens. Other foreign antigens include pollen, animal dander (scaly, dried skin), feces of house dust mites, foods, and drugs. Many of these trigger an allergic reaction, an overreaction of the immune system in some people. Transplanted tissues and organs that contain foreign antigens cause rejection of the transplant. Self-antigens are molecules the body produces to stimulate an adaptive immune system response. For example, the recognition of tumor antigens can result in tumor destruction, whereas autoimmune disease can develop when self-antigens stimulate unwanted tissue destruction. Adaptive immunity can be divided into antibody-mediated immunity and cell-mediated immunity. Antibody-mediated immunity involves proteins called antibodies, which are found in extracellular fluids, such as the plasma of blood, interstitial fluid, and lymph. Cell-mediated immunity involves the actions of a second type of lymphocyte, called T cells. Several subpopulations of T cells exist, each responsible for a particular aspect of cell-mediated immunity. For example, cytotoxic T cells are responsible for producing the effects of cell-mediated immunity. Helper T cells and regulatory T cells can promote or inhibit the activities of both antibodymediated immunity and cell-mediated immunity. Origin and Development of Lymphocytes All blood cells, including lymphocytes, are derived from stem cells in the red bone marrow (see chapter 19). The process of blood cell formation begins during embryonic development and continues throughout life. Some stem cells give rise to pre-T cells, which migrate through the blood to the thymus, where they divide and are processed into T cells (figure 22. The thymus produces hormones, such as thymosin, which stimulate T-cell maturation. Other stem cells produce pre-B cells, which are processed in the red bone marrow into B cells. A positive selection process results in the survival of pre-B and pre-T cells that are capable of an immune response. The B cells and T cells are members of clones, small groups of identical lymphocytes. Some of the clones can also respond to self-antigens, causing the destruction of body cells. Although the negative selection process occurs mostly during prenatal development, it continues throughout life (see "Inhibition of Lymphocytes," later in this section). B cells are released from red bone marrow, T cells are released from the thymus, and both types of cells move through the blood to lymphatic tissue. T cells are more numerous than B cells; there are approximately five T cells for every B cell in the blood. Lymphocytes live for a few months to many years and continually circulate between the blood and the lymphatic tissues. Antigens can come into contact with and activate lymphocytes, resulting in cell divisions that increase the number of lymphocytes able to recognize the antigen. These lymphocytes can circulate in blood and lymph to reach antigens in tissues throughout the body. During the development of a lymphocyte, it will move from the area in which it matures to an area in which it carries out its function. Lymphocytes mature into functional cells in the primary lymphatic organs, which are the red bone marrow and thymus.

Daryl, 42 years: Blood clotting protects against excessive blood loss when blood vessels are damaged.

Sigmor, 25 years: Preventive measures have also been identified to help people reduce their chance of developing heart disease.

Seruk, 33 years: Phrenic nerve Intercostal nerves Medial view of brainstem Spinal cord Neurons within the medulla oblongata that stimulate the muscles of respiration control the basic rhythm of ventilation.

Vatras, 45 years: However, although estrogen therapy has been successful, it prolongs the symptoms associated with menopause, in many women and some potential side effects are of concern, including an increased risk for breast, ovarian, and uterine cancer.

Trompok, 40 years: Which of the following symptoms would you predict: blurring of vision, excess tear formation, frequent or involuntary urination, pallor (pale skin), muscle twitching, or cramps

Ugrasal, 51 years: The dorsal respiratory groups are primarily responsible for stimulating contraction of the diaphragm.

Ugolf, 46 years: Thyroglobulin is taken into the follicular cells and broken down; T3 and T4 diffuse from the follicles to the blood.

Ugo, 57 years: But the sarcoplasmic reticulum is not as regularly arranged as in skeletal muscle fibers, and there are no dilated cisternae, as in skeletal muscle.

Umbrak, 53 years: The velocity of blood flow is greatest in the aorta, but the total crosssectional area is small.

Tarok, 65 years: Within the endocytotic vesicle, the antigen is broken down into fragments to form processed antigens.

Tyler, 55 years: Similarly, a sudden decrease in blood pressure causes the action potential frequency produced by the baroreceptors to also decrease.

Oelk, 49 years: The fluid shift mechanism causes fluid shift, which is the movement of fluid between the interstitial spaces and capillaries in response to changes in blood pressure to maintain blood volume.

Potros, 59 years: The left and right vertebral arteries unite to form a single, midline basilar (basi-lr) artery (figures 21.

Kalesch, 35 years: Recall that a polar covalent bond occurs when the more electronegative atom can pull the electrons more strongly and the electrons associate with the oxygen more than they do the hydrogens.